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Introduction
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The arrest rate for men is comparatively higher than that of women in every country except in cases of prostitution. This scenario has been constant in each historical period irrespective of the racial and ethnic background. The trends in female crime are relatively complex compared to those of males, and the increasing rates of female arrests stand as evidence of this fact. In the case of sexual crimes, both males and females are likely to be victims irrespective of age, and the offender might be of any gender. The social learning theory suggests that an individual being sexually abused at a young age turns out to be a predator. It would be irrational to lean towards one particular gender when it comes to sexual crimes, and this essay aims to highlight this fact. Generally, male offenders exceed female ones, and that has led to a generalized idea that only victimizes women.
An offender has no gender, and the only difference between male and female offenders might be their perspectives or criminal motives. The scope of this investigation is that it would provide a general idea about the similarities between these two types of offenders and make people aware of gender bias. On the other hand, the investigation would also be on the identification of the differences between them, such as the pattern of crime in each case can be understood. The six sources that have been chosen for conducting this investigation point out the patterns of crimes committed by male and female offenders with reference to actual cases. In some of these studies, the research has been conducted on either victims or the offenders themselves to get a clear idea about their mentalities. The data provided in the studies are authentic. Since these have been selected and collected from directly from interviews, documented cases or previous literature on the concerned topic.
Annotated bibliography
Christensen, L.S., 2021. Professionals’ perceptions of female child sexual offenders. Journal of interpersonal violence, 36(7-8), pp.NP4115-NP4138.
In this article, Christen (2021) has provided an in-depth understanding of the perceptions of professionals regarding female sexual offenders. The study also aimed to emphasize the areas that should be prioritized by the system for acknowledging female child offenders. The authors have conducted a semi-structured interview for this purpose with a group of professionals from different sectors. This group of 21 participants included one legal professional, police officers, counselors, social workers and child support workers. Most of these selected people belonged to the justice sector and community response such that a diverse response could be obtained. The findings suggested that female sexual offenders had a significant negative impact on their victims. It has also been mentioned about the insignificance of the offender’s gender and how the perceptions have changed over the years. Although the perceptions have been improvised, the study mentions that gender plays an important role in the case of dealings among colleagues in certain professions. However, Christen (2021) has mentioned the requirement of more open discussions on “female-perpetrated sexual abuse” to bring people out of the stigmatization. The limitations of this study include the small sample size and the social desirability of the professionals, which may have affected their opinions. This article will be used in my study to mention the similarities between sexual offenders of both genders.
Day, A., 2020. At a crossroads? Offender rehabilitation in Australian prisons. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 27(6), pp.939-949.
In this article, Day (2020) has provided an overview of the current status of rehabilitation of offenders in Australian prisons. The values and requirements of the rehabilitation programs have been the point of analysis in this study. The social climate of the prisons, the quality of treatments provided in these and the requirement of psychological treatment have been the variables in this case. The author has depended on secondary sources, including the speeches of the delegates of the "International Corrections and Prisons Association” for drawing conclusions in this context. The author has identified various challenges faced by rehabilitation programs across Australian jurisdictions. It has been stated that the programs are not as powerful as they were hoped, and the rate of substantive reductions in re-imprisonment is limited. As per Day (2020), Australian rehabilitation programs are likely to make a significant difference in the lives of one out of every 12 prisoners who have committed violent offences. The reason behind this has been the “mass delivery” of rehabilitation that failed to consider that the perspectives of each criminal are different. Hence, the author has concluded that besides improving the prison climates, it is also necessary to reduce the population in each prison. The only limitation of this study lies in its methodology since it has been collected from secondary sources. This article will be used in the essay to highlight the importance of rehabilitation programs irrespective of the gender of the offender.
Harrison, J.L., O'Toole, S.K., Ammen, S., Ahlmeyer, S., Harrell, S.N. and Hernandez, J.L., 2020. Sexual offender treatment effectiveness within cognitive-behavioural programs: A meta-analytic investigation of general, sexual, and violent recidivism. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 27(1), pp.1-25.
In this study, Harrison et al. (2020) have conducted a meta-analysis of 25 studies that have focused on the reduction of recidivism for increasing public safety. The focus of this study has been on male sexual offenders since the possibility of recidivism is greater in their case. A random effects model has been utilized to convert the 25 articles into effect sizes. The effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy in reducing recidivism has been the aim of this study. The findings from the article have suggested that recidivism has been observed after 4-5 years of follow-ups. Most of the studies have displayed results of violent recidivism, and CBT treatment has been overall effective since the treated sexual offenders have shown less recidivism. One potential limitation of this meta-analysis is the fact that it has prioritized studies based on male offenders only. I will use this article in my essay to particularly demonstrate the characteristics of male sexual offenders with respect to high recidivism probability and use this point to differentiate them from female offenders.
Papalia, N., Ogloff, J.R., Cutajar, M. and Mullen, P.E., 2018. Child sexual abuse and criminal offending: Gender-specific effects and the role of abuse characteristics and other adverse outcomes. Child maltreatment, 23(4), pp.399-416.
In this study, Papalia et al. (2018) have tried to establish a link between long-term criminality and child sexual abuse. The author has tried to investigate gender-specific effects and the characteristics of sexual abuse to determine this link. Re-victimization and mental health issues have also been considered to develop this link, and a total of 2759 documented cases of Australian sexual crimes have been used. Besides, 2677 community control cases have also been used from the statewide police and public mental health databases. The findings suggest that CSA victims are more likely to engage in sexual crimes. Violent offences and other general ones have been observed in the case of female offenders, while male offenders have shown more association with sexual crimes. The increased probability of criminal behavior has been found to be linked to factors like developmental period and relation to the perpetrator. The total burden of offending has been underestimated in this study, and there have been biased sources, and these are the limitations of this study. In my essay, I will use this article to evaluate the difference between male and female offenders with respect to differences in the number of general and sexual crimes.
Salter, M., Scott, S., Wong, W.T., Breckenridge, J., Cooper, S. and Peleg, N., 2021. Production and distribution of child sexual abuse material by parental figures. Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice [electronic resource], (616), pp.1-17.
In this article, Salter et al. (2021) have documented the significant effect of parental “Child sexual abuse material (CSAM)” offending on the victims. The study has also highlighted the requirement of victim support by specialists in this context. The author has documented 82 Australian cases of production and distribution of CSAM by parental figures. In this context, the author has declared that parents fall in the group of offenders in the case of sexual victims. The findings obtained in the study suggest that most of the perpetrators have been found to be male parental figures. The victims have been found to be mostly girls below nine years, and the patterns of parental CSAM offending have been different in each scenario. The limitations of the study involve the fact that the selection of CSAM cases has been narrow, and the information is limited since it has been obtained from media articles. Besides, the information has been obtained from criminal proceedings in which certain information is prioritized over others. I will use this study in my essay to point out the role of parental figures in the offending of victims and emphasize the gender factor.
Tozdan, S., Briken, P. and Dekker, A., 2019. Uncovering female child sexual offenders—Needs and challenges for practice and research. Journal of clinical medicine, 8(3), p.401.
In this article, Tozdan et al. (2019) have provided an overview of female sexual offenders and provided information on the discrepancy in the rates of prevalence. The characteristics of these offenders and their victims have been analysed by the author based on the previous literature. The culture of denial in the society surrounding women has been mentioned in this study, along with perceptions of the professionals in the justice system. The generalized idea of the healthcare professionals is concerning this social taboo which has been considered by the author based on which recommendations have been provided. However, the main limitation of this study is that it is based on secondary data that prevents direct interactions with the people concerned with the social taboo. I will use this study in my essay to highlight the social stigma that automatically links a crime to a male perpetrator and ignores the criminal mentality of women. This study will also be helpful in distinguishing the characteristics of female offenders from male ones.
References
Christensen, L.S., 2021. Professionals’ perceptions of female child sexual offenders. Journal of interpersonal violence, 36(7-8), pp.NP4115-NP4138.
Day, A., 2020. At a crossroads? Offender rehabilitation in Australian prisons. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 27(6), pp.939-949.
Harrison, J.L., O’Toole, S.K., Ammen, S., Ahlmeyer, S., Harrell, S.N. and Hernandez, J.L., 2020. Sexual offender treatment effectiveness within cognitive-behavioral programs: A meta-analytic investigation of general, sexual, and violent recidivism. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 27(1), pp.1-25.
Papalia, N., Ogloff, J.R., Cutajar, M. and Mullen, P.E., 2018. Child sexual abuse and criminal offending: Gender-specific effects and the role of abuse characteristics and other adverse outcomes. Child maltreatment, 23(4), pp.399-416.
Salter, M., Scott, S., Wong, W.T., Breckenridge, J., Cooper, S. and Peleg, N., 2021. Production and distribution of child sexual abuse material by parental figures. Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice [electronic resource], (616), pp.1-17.
Tozdan, S., Briken, P. and Dekker, A., 2019. Uncovering female child sexual offenders—Needs and challenges for practice and research. Journal of clinical medicine, 8(3), p.401.
